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Rydberg matter
Rydberg matter is a phase of matter formed by Rydberg atoms; it was predicted around 1980 by É. A. Manykin, M. I. Ozhovan and P. P. Poluéktov.〔
〕 It has been formed from various elements like caesium, potassium, hydrogen〔
〕 and nitrogen; studies have been conducted on theoretical possibilities like sodium, beryllium, magnesium and calcium. It has been suggested to be a material that diffuse interstellar bands may arise from; circular Rydberg states, where the outermost electron is found in a planar circular orbit, are the most long-lived with lifetimes of up to several hours and are the most common.
==Physical==
Rydberg matter consists of usually〔L. Holmlid, "Clusters HN+ (N = 4, 6, 12) from condensed atomic hydrogen and deuterium indicating close-packed structures in the desorbed phase at an active catalyst surface". Surf. Sci. 602 (2008) 3381–3387.〕 hexagonal〔L. Holmlid, "Precision bond lengths for Rydberg Matter clusters K19 in excitation levels n = 4, 5 and 6 from rotational radio-frequency emission spectra". Mol. Phys. 105 (2007) 933–939.〕〔L. Holmlid, "Rotational spectra of large Rydberg Matter clusters K37, K61 and K91 give trends in K-K bond distances relative to electron orbit radius". J. Mol. Struct. 885 (2008) 122–130.〕 planar〔L. Holmlid, "Classical energy calculations with electron correlation of condensed excited states – Rydberg Matter". Chem. Phys. 237 (1998) 11–19. 〕 clusters; these cannot be very big because of the retardation effect caused by the finite velocity of the speed of light.〔 Hence, they are not gases or plasmas; nor are they solids or liquids; they are most similar to dusty plasmas with small clusters in a gas. Though Rydberg matter can be studied in the laboratory by laser probing,〔H. Åkesson, S. Badiei and L. Holmlid, "Angular variation of time-of-flight of neutral clusters released from Rydberg Matter: primary and secondary Coulomb explosion processes". Chem. Phys. 321 (2006) 215–222.〕 the largest cluster reported consists of only 91 atoms,〔 but it has been shown to be behind extended clouds in space〔〔L. Holmlid, "Amplification by stimulated emission in Rydberg Matter clusters as the source of intense maser lines in interstellar space". Astrophys. Space Sci. 305 (2006) 91–98.〕 and the upper atmosphere of planets.〔L. Holmlid, "The alkali metal atmospheres on the Moon and Mercury: explaining the stable exospheres by heavy Rydberg Matter clusters". Planet. Space Sci. 54 (2006) 101–112.〕 Bonding in Rydberg matter is caused by delocalisation of the high-energy electrons to form an overall lower energy state.〔 The way in which the electrons delocalise is to form standing waves on loops surrounding nuclei, creating quantised angular momentum and the defining characteristics of Rydberg matter. It is a generalised metal by way of the quantum numbers influencing loop size but restricted by the bonding requirement for strong electron correlation;〔 it shows exchange-correlation properties similar to covalent bonding.〔E.A. Manykin, M.I. Ojovan, P.P. Poluektov. "Theory of the condensed state in a system of excited atoms". Sov. Phys. JETP 57 (1983) 256–262.〕 Electronic excitation and vibrational motion of these bonds can be studied by Raman spectroscopy.〔L. Holmlid, "Vibrational transitions in Rydberg Matter clusters from stimulated Raman and Rabi-flopping phase-delay in the infrared". J. Raman Spectr. 39 (2008) 1364–1374.〕
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